- 自由（英文版）（社会主义核心价值观·关键词）
- 韩震 吴玉军
- 3416字
- 2020-08-30 00:13:49
1.1 Human History:A History of Pursuing Freedom
Freedom is a topic that is both old and new, both simple and complex.Throughout the course of history, freedom has been discussed and debated by numerous people, with countless literature work dedicated to this topic.People hold different attitudes toward freedom.Someone sing the praises of freedom.In his well-known poem Love and Freedom, Petöfi Sándor, a Hungarian poet, expressed his praise and longing for freedom.
Life is dear, love is dearer.
Both can be given up for freedom.
Some people, however, harbor a deep feeling of rancor about freedom.Madame Roland, a French politician, who spent a lifetime fighting for liberty and her ideals but was conveyed to the guillotine in the name of liberty, uttered the famous remark for which she is remembered before her execution：
Oh! Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name！
Some consider freedom as the highest value of life while some see it as a heavy burden; some regard freedom as a God-given and inborn right, still some think freedom needs to be tirelessly pursued; some say freedom means people can act at their will in an unstrained manner; others argue that we need rules and standards—freedom cannot exist without laws and regulations.Montesquieu, a French philosopher, said in his book The Spirit of the Laws
：
There is no word that has admitted of more various significations, and has made more different impressions on human minds, than that of Liberty.
Georgi Plekhanov, a Russian philosopher, said:“The question of freedom is like Sphinx asks every thinker:Solve my riddle, or I will devour you! ”
The complexity of the concept of freedom indicates that an abstract and simple understanding and interpretation of freedom is not desirable.Freedom is, in essence, a historical concept—people living in different times or standing on different positions have different understandings of freedom.It can only be correctly understood and interpreted through close review of its historical circumstances.For the sake of brevity, detailed analysis of its historical formation is not made in this book.The following contents only offer a brief summary of the development of the concept of freedom.
1.1.1 Ancient Athens:Freedom of Citizens under Democracy
To understand the west, we need to examine the thoughts of the ancient Greece.Engels said in his book On Dialectics：
The manifold forms of Greek philosophy contain in embryo, in the nascent state, almost all later modes of outlook on the world. Theoretical natural science is therefore likewise forced to go back to the Greeks if it desires to trace the history of the origin and development of the general principles it holds today.And this insight is forcing its way more and more to the fore.
Thoughts that are related to freedom are also included in the“later modes of outlook on the world”.Ancient Greek political thoughts and practices represent the beginning of western consciousness of freedom and development of political freedom.
When people from other places were in the status of barbarism or under the authoritarian rule of slave owners or feudal lords, ancient Athenians already began the earliest democratic political practice in human history.In ancient Athenian politics, free citizens could take part in the administration of the city and freely express their views.Each free citizen is independent from other free citizens.They“exercised collectively, but directly, several parts of the complete sovereignty; in deliberating, in the public square, over war and peace; in forming alliances with foreign governments; in voting laws, in pronouncing judgments; in examining the accounts, the acts, the stewardship of the magistrates; in calling them to appear in front of the assembled people, in accusing, condemning or absolving them.” Pericles, arguably the most prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator and general of Athens during the Golden Age, proudly spoke of the political system in Funeral Oration：
Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighbouring states; we are rather a pattern to others than imitators ourselves. Its administration favours the many instead of the few; this is why it is called a democracy.If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences; if no social standing, advancement in public life falls to reputation for capacity, class considerations not being allowed to interfere with merit; nor again does poverty bar the way, if a man is able to serve the state, he is not hindered by the obscurity of his condition.The freedom which we enjoy in our government extends also to our ordinary life.There, far from exercising a jealous surveillance over each other, we do not feel called upon to be angry with our neighbour for doing what he likes, or even to indulge in those injurious looks which cannot fail to be offensive, although they inflict no positive penalty.But all this ease in our private relations does not make us lawless as citizens.Against this fear is our chief safeguard, teaching us to obey the magistrates and the laws, particularly such as regard the protection of the injured, whether they are actually on the statute book, or belong to that code which, although unwritten, yet cannot be broken without acknowledged disgrace.
Background Information
Ecclesia
The ecclesia was the principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens and had the highest authority.It was held 40 times every year. The assembly was responsible for examining and approving proposals drafted by Boule, the council, reviewing and electing the public officials.All citizens could attend the assembly and had the rights to know, speak, vote and stand for election.All free citizens were both ruler and the ruled.
In ancient Athens, most public officials were elected by lot and the term was one year.No one could hold the position for more than two terms.All free citizens, from illiterate farmers to rich people, might be elected, even being the highest leader of the city.
Freedom of citizens under democratic politics in Athens is a landmark in human history.In ancient times, when people from other parts of the world were in the stage of barbarism or under the authoritarian rule of slave owners or feudal lords, in Greece, for the first time in history, some of the residents enjoyed citizenship, collectively owned and governed the state and developed democracy.This is of great significance in human history.
However, democratic politics of Athens was not perfect.Only a minority of all residents enjoyed freedom.In the political structure of ancient Greece, people were divided into four strata:slaves, women, metics（resident aliens with no political rights）and citizens.Only citizens enjoyed freedom.These citizens constituted a very small part of the population, accounting for about one tenth of all the residents. Slaves, who were the majority of the population, were regarded merely as“tools that can talk”; they had no liberty, not to mention the right to take part in politics.“Private property and ‘liberty'of the Greeks, as it were, cannot be separated from slavery, because slave trade was their most important business.The flourishing of their liberty is based on the flourishing of slavery.In the heyday of Athens, on average, an adult male citizen had 18 slaves and more than 2 metics or released slaves.” Political freedom and democracy were not accessible to women, either.The responsibilities of women were childbearing and household labor.They were not allowed to take part in politics.
Meanwhile, freedom in the era of ancient Athens is greatly different from that of modern times.In modern society, freedom is a legitimate right of citizens, namely people's right to act freely and without limitations as long as they do not break the law.The opposite of freedom is restricting people's will and action through means such as violence, slavery and menaces.In ancient Athens, the modern concept of freedom—“having an independent space free from control of authoritarian forces”—does not exist.Compared to other countries with despotism, ancient Athenians enjoyed independence from other people, including the ruler; however, citizens were not independent from the city.In ancient Greece, life of citizens was highly dependent on the city.The small territory of the city-state and the exclusion of the group of citizens led to the tight-knit community inside the city and the unique mentality of citizens.People regarded themselves as an integral part of the city and thought their personal wealth, family, interests, honor, hope, physical and spiritual life and even their souls after death belonged to the city.As a result, all aspects of citizens'private life were politicized.Social equity, personal happiness and satisfaction of desires were defined and influenced by the city-state.The extensive intervention in people's lives by the mighty city-state was a defining feature of the politics of ancient Greek city-states.
The city controlled every aspect of social life.The result was the absence of a clear boundary between citizenship and public authority. All things related to citizens were influenced by the power of the city-state.Therefore, there were no individuals in the sense of political rights; there were only individuals in the physiological sense.Citizens did not develop objectives, hobbies and needs based on private interests and they were dominated by a collective consciousness of the citystate.Every citizen clearly knew that they belonged to the city-state. Although Socrates, who was known for his maverick opinions, saw himself as“a gadfly of Athens”, he had very strong loyalty and attachment to the city-state.This is clearly demonstrated by his reply to Crito's pleas to attempt an escape from prison.
Has a philosopher like you failed to discover that our country is more to be valued and higher and holier far than mother or father or any ancestor, and more to be regarded in the eyes of the gods and of men of understanding? Also to be soothed, and gently and reverently entreated when angry, even more than a father, and if not persuaded, obeyed? And when we are punished by her, whether with imprisonment or stripes, the punishment is to be endured in silence; and if she leads us to wounds or death in battle, thither we fol low as is right…
In ancient Greeks'eyes, it was natural that citizens should unconditionally obey orders of the city-state.They did not believe that the city-state was a free combination of will of individuals.The formation of the concept of freedom—individuals are free from threat of any outside force, including other individuals, the state, society, and the development of the concept of individualism took place in the west only in modern times.
1.1.2 The Bourgeoisie:Seeking Happiness and Individual Rights
In the Middle Ages, Europe was for a long time shrouded in the darkness of slavery and Feudalism.Dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure, the nobility and the clergy, Europeans did not have access to democracy, freedom or human rights.People's words and deeds were strictly controlled by the Catholic Church. People holding different opinions from the church would be labeled as heretics and sentenced by the Inquisition.
Background Information
Inquisition
The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the judicial system of the Roman Catholic Church in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, whose aim was to combat heresy.The Inquisition stifled progressive ideas, with many victims being scientists of the time.The total number of people put on trial by inquisitorial courts throughout their history was approximately 380,000.During the 150 years after the 15th century, 30,000 people were executed in Rome, the center of the rule of the Catholic Church.Bruno, an Italian scientist, was imprisoned in 1592 because he criticized scholasticism and theology.He was sentenced by the Institution and burnt at the square called Campo de'Fiori（meaning in English:Field of Flowers）in 1600.
Three events marked the transition of humanity from agrarian culture to industrial culture:discovery of new shipping routes, the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation.Industrial civilization is so far the most dynamic and innovative civilization in human history. In several hundred years, people created far more physical and spiritual wealth than all preceding generations together.Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels said in the Communist Manifesto：
The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have al l preceding generations together.Subjection of nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalization or rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground—what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labor?
Secularization movement gained momentum along with the development of productive forces and expansion of human interaction.The emerging bourgeoisie dismissed rules and disciplines set by the Christianity and enjoyed the worldly life.To fight feudal monarch and theocracy, the bourgeoisie upheld freedom, equality and human rights and believed that individuals had a range of rights that were protected by laws.Liberation of thoughts and individual freedom were pursued by the bourgeoisie.
Liberation of Thoughts
One important commandment of Christian theology is:the material world is the source of sins and the body is a burden of human beings.According to Christian theology, only by abandoning material and carnal desires can people gain eternal life and live in nearness to God.However, the economic secularization movement after the Renaissance firmly rejected the faith in the Heaven and asceticism.The secularization movement believed that the purpose of life is not the“eternal life”after death, but the enjoyment of the worldly life;people's natural desires are not sins and should be met instead of being restrained; love between men and women is not a scandal and should be spoken highly of.Therefore, the slogan of the secularization movement was:I am a mortal and I only want mortal happiness. The Protestant ethic generated by the Protestant Reformation combined people's pursuit of worldly life with faith in God.Protestant ethic emphasized hard work, frugality and diligence as a constant display of a person's salvation in the Christian faith.It not only encouraged people to create and accumulate wealth, but also emphasized restriction of religion on people's desires, thus combining religious lifestyle with the way people did business.Secularization in the economic field marked humanity's independence and God's retreat in economy.
Background Information
The Renaissance
The Renaissance was an ideological and cultural movement taking place in Europe from mid-14th century to early 17th century.It first originated in Florence, Milan and Venice, and then expanded to other parts of Europe.The Renaissance upheld humanism, human value and dignity; it was human-centered rather than God-centered; human beings were the creator and master of real life.Renaissance affirmed people's pursuit of happiness and promoted entrepreneurship.After Renaissance, people no longer focused on the Heaven or looked forward to an after-life happiness and immortality, but tried to build a paradise on earth in the secular society.
Protecting Individual Rights
Secularization in politics removed God's interference in political affairs and returned humanity and human rights to people.One major source of modern liberal constitutional theory is liberal natural law, which grew out of the medieval Christian natural law theories and deduced the law of social life based on natural law.Hugo Grotius, one of the pioneers of liberal natural law, said“humanity is the mother of nature”.The school of natural law made assumptions about human nature:people avoid disadvantages; people are self-preserving; people are pure and kind-hearted.The emphasis on human nature affirmed the natural necessity and rationality of human nature and made this universal human nature the basic purpose and content of natural law.The school of natural law denied that natural laws came from God or the cosmos and opposed to put natural law and human nature in opposition.
According to natural rights theory, people lived in a natural state before entering civilization.In a natural state, all people were free and equal and enjoyed inalienable rights that were empowered by nature.These rights included rights to life, liberty, property and pursuit of happiness.Formation of government and use of state authority should not violate individual rights.In the eyes of natural rights thinkers, above-mentioned rights are inviolable.Any outside force, whether it is from individuals, state or society, should not interfere with these rights.Without these rights, people do not have dignity. The Declaration of Independence of the United States in 1776 and Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of France in 1789 both clearly reflect the idea of natural rights.
Background Information
The Declaration of Independence（excerpts）
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.
That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government…
To effectively protect people's freedom and rights, emerging capitalist countries gradually put in place institutions including check and balance, parliament, universal suffrage, two-party and multiparty systems.These institutions helped protect interests of the bourgeoisie, improve social freedom and facilitate social development and progress.
1.1.3 The Proletariat:Pursuing Substantive Freedom
The capitalism idea of freedom is undoubtedly a remarkable achievement in human history.It eradicated the old feudal system and tried to provide people with equal political rights.However, this capitalism freedom has some apparent defects.It is fundamentally the freedom of the bourgeoisie and is formalistic and hypocritical to the proletariat.The freedom and democracy in capitalism society rely on private ownership of the means of production.And the amount of capital and property play a decisive role in political participation.The bourgeoisie which control the most of the social resources and wealth wields the political power to protect its own political and economic interest.Thus the freedom and democracy in capitalist society is merely“a game of the riches”, “the freedom for money”and“the democracy of money”.
While acknowledging the historical achievement of capitalism, socialism has been explicitly criticizing this capitalism freedom since the day of its birth.As an ideology that transcends capitalism, socialism has the task of achieving greater freedom.Socialism is the initial stage of communism.It is also the revolt of the predominating capitalism exploitation and oppression and the great cause of realizing“the full and free development of every individual”.On the one hand, physical freedom can be achieved by understanding and transforming nature.On the other hand, the full and free development of every individual can be achieved by breaking the shackles of the old social relations and developing new modes of production.
Background Information
The Communist Manifesto
The Communist Manifesto is written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.It is the program of the first proletarian party in Europe, and also marks the birth of Marxism.The Communist Manifesto is first published in London in February 1848.For the first time, Marx and Engels systematically presented the theory of scientific socialism and showed the historical inevitability of communist movement.Since it was first published, The Communist Manifesto has been republished for over 1,000 times in more than 200 languages and in over 300 editions worldwide.It is regarded as“one of the world's most influential social political documents”.
The emancipation of humanity and the full and free development of every individual is the sublime pursuit of Marxism and the lifelong career of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.Marx and Engels strived to free human from the inanimate forces of nature, from all exploitations, from oppression and the old system of division of labor, and from the ideologies of the exploiting class.Marx and Engels fulminated against the capitalist for ruthlessly exploiting and oppressing of workers.They studied the alienation in capitalist society.They exposed the hypocrisies of capitalist ideology and the injustice of capitalist system. Based on historical materialism and the doctrine of surplus value, Marx and Engels analyzed the immanent contradictions and the development trend of capitalism.They asserted that capitalism would be replaced by communism.
The full and free development of every individual is the supreme subject and the essential manifestation of Marxism.As a fundamental part of socialism, this manifestation guides the communist movement and socialist construction.It distinguishes socialism from capitalism. The development of social productivity, economy, culture and the development of individuals are progressive processes without ends.The establishment of socialism and the socialism modernization, as the prerequisites for the free and full development of people, pave the way for human society's leap from realm of necessity to realm of freedom.