2.1　Interlanguage

While learning a second language，learners build up a system for themselves which is different in some ways from their first language，second language，or third language system.The system which the learners build up for themselves has been given various names such as“approximative systems”and“idiosyncratic dialects”or“transitional competence”(Ellis，1999a)by other theorists，like Nemser(1971)，Corder(1971)，Richards(1971)，Richards & Sampson(1974)，Adjemian(1976)，and Sharwood-Smith(1985).But the most widely used terminology is that suggested by Selinker，mainly in SLA rather than TLA.He calls this “interlanguage”to emphasize the structurally intermediate status of the learner's language system between his mother tongue and his target language.A detailed study of“interlanguage”could help us to understand the learners' problems better and provide timely help to learners，so that they can achieve competence in the language they are trying to learn.

As mentioned above，the term“interlanguage”in SLA is attributed to Selinker，who first used it in 1972.It refers to：

a continuum between the L1 and L2 along which all learners traverse.At any point along the continuum，the learners' language is systematic，i.e.rule-governed，and common to all learners，any difference being explicable by differences in their learning experience.(Larsen-Freeman & Long，2000：60)

In other words，as a point along a continuum，a learner's interlanguage，although neither identical to L1 or L2，shares some characteristics of both.Elements of L1(or indeed of other languages)，such as politeness rules and formulae may be transferred to a learner's interlanguage.The L2 is the target system which the transitory interlanguage is to approach，although this norm is generally not attained due to the fossilization of particular non-target forms(cf.Selinker 1972：215)，or to the possible inappropriateness of the L2 norm.A learner's interlanguage is also characterized by autonomous features which tend to be common to all or most interlanguage systems.Such distinctive features mirror a learner's un-derstanding of the L2 system at a particular point in time.That is，interlanguage operates according to an incomplete and developing hypothesis of appropriate L2 behavior.Although systematic，it is also transitory in nature.Similar but not identical ideas can be found in Ellis(1999a)，viz.interlanguage

...is used to refer to both the internal system that a learner has constructed at a single point in time(“an interlanguage”)and to the series of interconnected systems that characterize the learner's progress over time(“interlanguage”or“the interlanguage continuum”)(350).

Such a claim is important to the present research since it partly implies the inclusiveness of a third language or fourth language “acquisition”in the“interlanguage continuum”.

Interlanguage theory is important due to the fact that many other theories such as interlanguage phonology，interlanguage grammar and interlanguage pragmatics were developed out of it.To explain the process of SLA，the theory of interlanguage asks three important questions，namely，what processes are involved and responsible for interlanguage construction；what is the nature of interlanguage continuum；and how to explain the fact that most learners do not achieve the full L2 competence(Ellis，1994).In answer to these questions，Selinker(1996)pointed out five cognitive processes involved in interlanguage construction，or the so-called “latent psychological structure”：(1)language transfer，where some items，rules and structures of L1 can be transferred to production of L2；(2)transfer of training，where language teaching creates interlanguage rules that are not of the L2 and that result in the way the learners were taught；(3)strategies of second lan-guage learning，e.g.simplification，where for example the learner uses only one form of a verb；(4)strategies of second languagecommunication，where，for instance，learner omits grammatically redundant items in an utterance，producing ill-formed sentences (e.g.* I saw beautiful girl)；and(5)overgeneralization of L2 material，where the learner tries to use L2 grammatical rules in the way they would not be used by a native speaker(e.g.* Whatdoes she doing now？).This list，developed on the basis of hypothesis testing，is one of the first attempts to specify the processes of L2 acquisition.Although the list itself raises a number of questions and doubts(e.g.why are language transfer and overgeneralization mentioned separately from learning strategies，of which they are examples)，it certainly is an important one，as it has introduced a number of key distinctions，such as the difference between “learning”and“communication strategies”，etc.In addition，Corder claimed that learners formulate hypotheses about the target language while they get the input.Hypotheses are accepted，if they are able to communicate without any problems；and rejected，if their output fails to communicate and is corrected(Ellis，1999a：352).Furthermore，from the process point of view，the distinctiveness of the“product”interlanguage is the result of a number of overlapping influences or sources(Cf.Selinker，1972：216ff)，three of which have been found by Kasper(1981：435)to be of particular importance for interlanguage pragmatics.These are pragmatic transfer，pragmatic overgeneralization and teaching-induced errors(cf.Barron，2003：36 -41；Odlin，2001).

Apart from the processes involved in interlanguage construction，interlanguage theory also works with reference to seven main principles as postulated below：

1.The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies the comprehension and production(the system referred to as“interlanguage”).The learner uses it just as the native speaker deals with linguistic competence(and they allow him/her to produce novel sentences)；

2.The language-learner's grammar is permeable，as it is incomplete and unstable the way he/she built it.It is vulnerable to new linguistic forms and rules，which can be derived either internally(e.g.transfer from L1 or overgeneralization of an interlanguage rule)or externally(i.e.through exposure to L2 input)；

3.L2 learner's competence is transitional.Due to the fact that the interlanguage is permeable(previous principle)，it is constantly revised and therefore each stage in language learning has its own interlanguage based and overlapping one another as it is derived from the one from the previous stage (all those“interlanguages”form the“interlanguage continuum”)；

4.Learner's competence is variable at any stage of development.This variability reflects the form-function correlations (which comprise the grammar rules of a given stage of development)；Although this principle is able to account for the insights provided by form-function analyses，it raises many controversies and is claimed by some linguists，like Adjemian (1976)，Bialystok & Sharwood-Smith(1985)and Gregg (1990)，that competence variability is not an account of interlanguage.

5.Interlanguage development reflects the operation of cognitive learning strategies.Although there are lots of various explanations to the processes involved in construction of interlanguages，according to Cancino and other theorists，there are a number of cognitive learning processes，such as L1 transfer，overgeneralization and simplification，comprising interlanguage，and according to this view it is not necessary for us to use the LAD in SLA.

6.Interlanguage can also reflect the operation of communication strategies(conclusion on the theory in the previous principle)；

7.Interlanguage may be fossilized.This means not only that it stops developing in the direction of progress but also that it reaches a certain level and does not progress any more for further development.(Ellis，1990：51 -53)

The assumptions underlying interlanguage theory were stated clearly as follows(Nemser，1971，cited in Ellis，1999b：47)：(1)at any given time，the approximative system(an alternative term for interlanguage)is distinct from the L1 and L2；(2)the approximative systems form an evolving series；and(3)that in a given contact situation，the approximative systems of learners at the same stage of proficiency roughly coincide.

The acquisitional study of interlanguge includes the following issues：(1)the developmental patterns in L2 pragmatics including pragmatic comprehension，pragmatics and discourse ability，speech acts，and pragmatic transfer；(2)the development of pragmatics and grammar；(3)learning context and learning opportunities including input and interaction learners have in different learning environments；(4)the role of instruction in learning L2 pragmatics；and (5)individual differences in L2 pragmatic development(Kasper & Rose，2002：1).

Interlanguage is in short a unique and dynamic linguistic system developed by anyone who acquires a second or another language.For ethnic minority learners，interlanguage acquisition and development seems to be rather complicated.For the Han Chinese，interlanguage has been expounded as a developing phenomenon formed simply in the process of the English language learning(cf.Sheng，2007；Dai & Zhang，2002；Dai & Yang，2005；Yu，2004；Ding，2004；Ma，2007a).But for ethnic bilinguals or trilinguals，the phenomenon seems to be more complicated since they can speak Chinese besides their own ethnic mother tongue while learning English.As learner language，interlanguage is supposed to be a system of rules and applications that not only bear the properties and rules of L1，L2，or even L3，L4，but also possess the features of neither or none.In brief，there are still a number of arguments，either in favor or against interlanguage theory，and it is still developing and adapting to new research findings.Whatever it is，interlanguage should and must be a matter of process in general but not an end product or terminal goal to be achieved in foreign language learning.Related to interlanguage is a review of interlanguage pragmatics in the next section.